Theory tricks that make philosophers stick

State of nature = constant war of all against all. People surrender freedoms to a sovereign (the Leviathan) in exchange for security. Justifies absolute authority.

People are born with natural rights. Government is a contract: protect rights or lose legitimacy. Directly influenced Jefferson, the Declaration of Independence, and constitutional government.

The general will represents what is truly best for the whole community. Influenced the French Revolution and democratic theory. Opposite of Hobbes: nature is peaceful, society is corrupting.

Bourgeoisie (owners) exploit proletariat (workers). This contradiction leads to revolution → socialism → classless stateless communism. Influenced USSR, China, Cuba.

Jeremy Bentham: pleasure and pain are the only relevant factors. Actions are right if they maximize overall happiness. John Stuart Mill refined it. Consequentialism: only outcomes matter, not intentions or rules.

Plato (428-348 BC): ideal state ruled by philosopher-kings — those with wisdom and virtue. Three classes: guardians (rulers), auxiliaries (military), producers (everyone else). Allegory of the Cave: most people see only shadows of truth. Critiques democracy as rule by those without knowledge.

Aristotle (384-322 BC): humans naturally form political communities. Three good forms: monarchy, aristocracy, polity. Three corrupt forms: tyranny, oligarchy, democracy. Best practical: mixed constitution (polity) — combines elements of oligarchy and democracy. Middle class is stabilizing force.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527): successful rulers must be willing to use force and deception when necessary. Virtu (skill and decisiveness) + Fortuna (luck/circumstances). Better to be feared than loved — but don't be hated. Lions and foxes: force and cunning. Separated political analysis from Christian ethics.

Not 'liberal' in the American political sense. Classical liberalism: individual liberty is the highest political value. Government must be limited and consent-based. Rule of law: government bound by law like everyone else. Key thinkers: Locke, Smith, Mill, Tocqueville. Foundation of constitutional democracy and human rights.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797): society is an organic partnership across generations. Radical change destroys accumulated wisdom embedded in traditions and institutions. Reform must be gradual and cautious. Hierarchy and order are natural. 'The state ought not to be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in a trade.'

All three agree: legitimate government rests on consent of the governed. Hobbes: rational self-interest drives people to accept absolute sovereign to escape the state of nature. Locke: government protects pre-existing natural rights — can be overthrown if it fails. Rousseau: the general will represents the common good.

John Rawls (1971): imagine choosing principles for society behind a 'veil of ignorance' — not knowing your race, class, gender, abilities. Rational people would choose: equal basic liberties (first principle) and inequalities allowed only if they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle). Foundation of modern liberal egalitarianism.

Rawls (1971): veil of ignorance — choose principles not knowing your position. Difference principle: inequalities only justified if they benefit the least well-off. Supports redistributive welfare state. Nozick (1974): self-ownership — taxation for redistribution is forced labor. Only minimal state justified. Entitlement theory: just holdings from just acquisition and voluntary transfer.

Pluralist (Dahl): democracy is competition among interest groups — power dispersed. Elite theory (Mosca, Mills): small elite always rules regardless of formal democracy. Aggregative: democracy adds up preferences via voting — Arrow's impossibility theorem shows no perfect voting method. Deliberative (Habermas): democracy requires rational public discourse for legitimacy.

Classical conservatism (Burke): tradition embodies accumulated wisdom, change should be gradual, institutions matter, skeptical of abstract reason. Classical liberalism (Locke): natural rights (life, liberty, property), government by consent, limited government. Modern liberalism: welfare state, positive liberty. Modern conservatism: free market, traditional values, strong defense.

Historical materialism: history driven by economic conditions and class conflict. Modes of production: feudalism to capitalism to socialism to communism. Bourgeoisie (owners) vs proletariat (workers) — exploitation via surplus value. Capitalism's contradictions lead to crisis and revolution. State is instrument of ruling class. Communism: classless, stateless society after socialist transition.