Five climate types with letter codes — the world standard
A (Tropical): always hot and wet. B (Dry): deserts and steppes. C (Temperate): mild winters. D (Continental): cold winters, warm summers. E (Polar): always cold, warmest month below 10°C.
ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone): equator gets most sun → air rises → rain. Subtropics: air descends → deserts.
Atmospheric Circulation
Why the equator is rainy and 30° latitude is desert
Intense solar heating at the equator forces air to rise, cool, and dump rain → tropical forests. At ~30°, air descends dry → deserts (Sahara, Arabian, Atacama, Sonoran).
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🃏 Atmospheric Circulation
ITCZ — why is the equator rainy and the subtropics dry?
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🃏 Answer
ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone): equator gets most sun → air rises → rain. Subtropics: air descends → deserts.
Atmospheric Circulation — Intense solar heating at the equator forces air to rise, cool, and dump rain → tropical forests. At ~30°, air descends dry → deserts (Sahara, Arabian, Atacama, Sonoran).
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El Niño / La Niña
El Niño: warm eastern Pacific → drought in Australia, flooding in Peru
El Niño / La Niña
Periodic Pacific Ocean warming and cooling disrupts global weather
El Niño (warm): weakens trade winds, warm water shifts east → Australian drought, Peruvian flooding. La Niña (cool): opposite effects. Occurs every 2–7 years. Affects global agriculture.
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🃏 El Niño / La Niña
El Niño — what happens, and what are its effects?
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🃏 Answer
El Niño: warm eastern Pacific → drought in Australia, flooding in Peru
El Niño / La Niña — El Niño (warm): weakens trade winds, warm water shifts east → Australian drought, Peruvian flooding. La Niña (cool): opposite effects. Occurs every 2–7 years. Affects global agriculture.
Four major greenhouse gases and how they warm the planet
Water vapor most abundant. CO₂ most significant human-emitted. Methane 80× more potent than CO₂ over 20 years. Nitrous oxide from fertilizers and livestock.
Urban heat island: cities are warmer than surrounding areas — concrete and asphalt absorb heat
Urban Heat Island Effect
Why cities are consistently warmer than nearby rural areas
Dark paved surfaces absorb more solar radiation than vegetation. Buildings trap heat and block wind. Lack of vegetation reduces evaporative cooling. Cities can be 1–3°C warmer than surrounding areas.
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🃏 Urban Heat Island Effect
Urban heat island — what causes it?
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🃏 Answer
Urban heat island: cities are warmer than surrounding areas — concrete and asphalt absorb heat
Urban Heat Island Effect — Dark paved surfaces absorb more solar radiation than vegetation. Buildings trap heat and block wind. Lack of vegetation reduces evaporative cooling. Cities can be 1–3°C warmer than surrounding areas.
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Atmospheric Circulation Cells
Hadley cell: equatorial air rises → moves poleward → descends at ~30° → returns to equator as trade winds
Atmospheric Circulation Cells
The three circulation cells that drive global wind patterns
Hadley cell (0-30°): equatorial heating drives rising air, poleward flow at altitude, subsidence at ~30° (deserts), return as trade winds. Ferrel cell (30-60°): mid-latitude circulation, westerly winds. Polar cell (60-90°): cold polar air descends, flows equatorward. Boundaries create major climate zones.
How ocean circulation moderates and shapes regional climates
Warm currents flow poleward on western sides of ocean basins (Gulf Stream, Kuroshio). Moderate adjacent coastlines — NW Europe warmer than its latitude suggests. Cold currents flow equatorward on eastern sides (California, Peru/Humboldt, Benguela). Upwelling brings cold, nutrient-rich water → coastal deserts, rich fisheries.
Ocean Currents and Climate — Warm currents flow poleward on western sides of ocean basins (Gulf Stream, Kuroshio). Moderate adjacent coastlines — NW Europe warmer than its latitude suggests. Cold currents flow equatorward on eastern sides (California, Peru/Humboldt, Benguela). Upwelling brings cold, nutrient-rich water → coastal deserts, rich fisheries.
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Monsoon Systems
Monsoon: seasonal reversal of winds → wet summer, dry winter. South Asia most affected.
Monsoon Systems
Seasonal wind reversals that dominate South and East Asian climates
Summer monsoon: land heats faster than ocean → low pressure over land → moist ocean air drawn inland → heavy rain. Winter monsoon: land cools faster → high pressure over land → dry continental air flows out to sea. South Asian monsoon: June-September, critical for agriculture. 1.5 billion people depend on monsoon rains.
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🃏 Monsoon Systems
Monsoon — what is it, and where is it strongest?
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🃏 Answer
Monsoon: seasonal reversal of winds → wet summer, dry winter. South Asia most affected.
Monsoon Systems — Summer monsoon: land heats faster than ocean → low pressure over land → moist ocean air drawn inland → heavy rain. Winter monsoon: land cools faster → high pressure over land → dry continental air flows out to sea. South Asian monsoon: June-September, critical for agriculture. 1.5 billion people depend on monsoon rains.
Microclimate: local climate conditions that differ from surrounding area. Urban heat island is one example.
Microclimate
How local conditions create distinct climate zones within larger regions
Microclimates created by: topography (south-facing slopes warmer in N. hemisphere), water bodies (lake effect snow, coastal fog), vegetation (forest canopy modifies temperature and humidity), urban surfaces (heat island). Frost hollows: cold air sinks into valleys at night. Understanding microclimates is crucial for agriculture and urban planning.
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🃏 Microclimate
Microclimate — what is it, with an example?
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🃏 Answer
Microclimate: local climate conditions that differ from surrounding area. Urban heat island is one example.
Microclimate — Microclimates created by: topography (south-facing slopes warmer in N. hemisphere), water bodies (lake effect snow, coastal fog), vegetation (forest canopy modifies temperature and humidity), urban surfaces (heat island). Frost hollows: cold air sinks into valleys at night. Understanding microclimates is crucial for agriculture and urban planning.
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Coriolis Effect
Coriolis effect: moving objects deflect right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern Hemisphere
Coriolis Effect
Why winds and ocean currents curve — and why it matters
Earth's rotation deflects moving objects (winds, currents, projectiles) to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern. NOT strong enough to affect water draining from bathtubs — that's a myth. Does affect: hurricanes/cyclones (counterclockwise in NH, clockwise in SH), trade winds, jet streams.
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Flashcard
🃏 Coriolis Effect
The Coriolis effect — which way do things deflect?
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🃏 Answer
Coriolis effect: moving objects deflect right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern Hemisphere
Coriolis Effect — Earth's rotation deflects moving objects (winds, currents, projectiles) to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern. NOT strong enough to affect water draining from bathtubs — that's a myth. Does affect: hurricanes/cyclones (counterclockwise in NH, clockwise in SH), trade winds, jet streams.
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Acid Rain
Acid rain: SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and NOx (nitrogen oxides) from burning fossil fuels combine with water vapor → sulfuric and nitric acid
Acid Rain
How air pollution causes chemical weathering far from its source
Power plants and vehicles emit SO₂ and NOₓ. These react with water vapor and oxygen to form sulfuric and nitric acids. Fall as precipitation far downwind. Effects: acidifies lakes (kills fish), damages forests, erodes limestone buildings and sculptures. Transboundary pollution — Canada affected by US emissions, Scandinavia by UK/Germany.
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Flashcard
🃏 Acid Rain
Acid rain — what causes it?
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🃏 Answer
Acid rain: SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and NOx (nitrogen oxides) from burning fossil fuels combine with water vapor → sulfuric and nitric acid
Acid Rain — Power plants and vehicles emit SO₂ and NOₓ. These react with water vapor and oxygen to form sulfuric and nitric acids. Fall as precipitation far downwind. Effects: acidifies lakes (kills fish), damages forests, erodes limestone buildings and sculptures. Transboundary pollution — Canada affected by US emissions, Scandinavia by UK/Germany.
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🎓 Common Exam Questions
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