Literary Terms Lessons | English & Lit

📝 Literary Terms — 9 Memory Tricks

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Figurative Language

Simile LIKE/AS · Metaphor IS · Personification = human traits to non-human

Three core types of figurative language every student must know

Simile: comparison using like or as (Her smile was like sunshine). Metaphor: direct comparison without like or as (Her smile was sunshine). Extended metaphor: metaphor sustained throughout a passage or poem. Personification: giving human qualities to non-human things (The wind whispered through the trees). Anthropomorphism: making non-human characters fully human (talking animals in fables).

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Beginner

Simile vs metaphor

Both compare two unlike things. Simile uses like or as (explicitly signals a comparison). Metaphor states the comparison directly (no like or as). Both create vivid images and unexpected connections.

Extended metaphor

Single metaphor developed at length across multiple sentences or paragraphs. John Donne's A Valediction Forbidding Mourning extends a compass metaphor across the whole poem. Identify extended metaphors by tracing a single comparison throughout a text.

Personification vs anthropomorphism

Personification: non-human things given human qualities as a figure of speech (Time flies). Anthropomorphism: non-human characters given human form and behavior throughout a narrative (Winnie-the-Pooh, Animal Farm characters). Personification is a device; anthropomorphism is a narrative choice.

Dead metaphors

Metaphors so overused they have lost their figurative impact: the leg of a table, the eye of a needle, running a program. We process them literally. Avoid in fresh writing; notice them in analysis.

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🃏 Figurative Language

Simile vs metaphor vs personification?

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🃏 Answer

Simile LIKE/AS · Metaphor IS · Personification = human traits to non-human

Simile vs metaphor — Both compare two unlike things. Simile uses like or as (explicitly signals a comparison). Metaphor states the comparison directly (no like or as). Both create vivid images and unexpected connections.

Extended metaphor — Single metaphor developed at length across multiple sentences or paragraphs. John Donne's A Valediction Forbidding Mourning extends a compass metaphor across the whole poem. Identify extended metaphors by tracing a single comparison throughout a text.

Personification vs anthropomorphism — Personification: non-human things given human qualities as a figure of speech (Time flies). Anthropomorphism: non-human characters given human form and behavior throughout a narrative (Winnie-the-Pooh, Animal Farm characters). Personification is a device; anthropomorphism is a narrative choice.

Dead metaphors — Metaphors so overused they have lost their figurative impact: the leg of a table, the eye of a needle, running a program. We process them literally. Avoid in fresh writing; notice them in analysis.

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Sound Devices

Sound devices: Alliteration (ALLA — repetition of initial consonant sounds), Assonance (ASSON — repetition of vowel sounds), Consonance (CONS — repetition of consonant sounds within words)

Three sound devices that create musicality in poetry and prose

Alliteration: repetition of initial consonant sounds (Peter Piper picked). Assonance: repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words (hear me near the sea). Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words (milk and silk). Onomatopoeia: words that imitate sounds (buzz, crash, sizzle). Euphony: combination of pleasant sounds. Cacophony: combination of harsh, discordant sounds.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Beginner

Alliteration

INITIAL consonant sound repeated. The breeze blew briskly. Tongue twisters. Used in advertising for memorability, in poetry for emphasis and rhythm. Note: the sound matters, not the letter (phone = f sound).

Assonance

VOWEL sounds repeated: The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain. Creates internal rhyme and musicality. Different from end rhyme (which is also assonance at line endings).

Consonance

CONSONANT sounds repeated within or at end of words: pitter patter, odds and ends, stroke of luck. Broader than alliteration (which is only initial consonants). Slant rhyme often involves consonance.

Onomatopoeia

Words whose pronunciation imitates the sound they describe: buzz, hiss, crash, thud, murmur. Creates sensory immediacy. Common in poetry, comics (POW! BANG!), advertising.

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🃏 Sound Devices

Sound devices — alliteration, assonance, consonance?

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🃏 Answer

Sound devices: Alliteration (ALLA — repetition of initial consonant sounds), Assonance (ASSON — repetition of vowel sounds), Consonance (CONS — repetition of consonant sounds within words)

Alliteration — INITIAL consonant sound repeated. The breeze blew briskly. Tongue twisters. Used in advertising for memorability, in poetry for emphasis and rhythm. Note: the sound matters, not the letter (phone = f sound).

Assonance — VOWEL sounds repeated: The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain. Creates internal rhyme and musicality. Different from end rhyme (which is also assonance at line endings).

Consonance — CONSONANT sounds repeated within or at end of words: pitter patter, odds and ends, stroke of luck. Broader than alliteration (which is only initial consonants). Slant rhyme often involves consonance.

Onomatopoeia — Words whose pronunciation imitates the sound they describe: buzz, hiss, crash, thud, murmur. Creates sensory immediacy. Common in poetry, comics (POW! BANG!), advertising.

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Irony

Verbal = opposite of what is meant · Situational = unexpected outcome · Dramatic = audience knows more

Three types of irony — all involve a gap between expectation and reality

Verbal irony: saying the opposite of what you mean (That test was a piece of cake, said after failing). Situational irony: an outcome opposite to what is expected (A fire station burning down). Dramatic irony: the audience knows something the characters do not (we know Romeo is alive when Juliet kills herself). Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony with a bitter or mocking tone.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Intermediate

Verbal irony

The words mean the opposite of what is literally said. Nice weather, on a stormy day. Distinguished from sarcasm (which is always mean-spirited) — verbal irony can be gentle or even affectionate.

Situational irony

The actual outcome is opposite to what was expected or what would seem appropriate. Often darkly comic. Oedipus trying to avoid his fate only to fulfill it. A marriage counselor getting divorced.

Dramatic irony

Audience or reader has information that characters lack. Creates tension, suspense, or tragic effect. Shakespeare uses it constantly: we know Iago is evil; Othello does not. We know Romeo is alive; Juliet does not.

Cosmic irony

Also called irony of fate: the universe seems to conspire against characters. Hardy uses it extensively. Suggests indifference or hostility of universe to human desires and plans.

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🃏 Irony

The three types of irony?

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🃏 Answer

Verbal = opposite of what is meant · Situational = unexpected outcome · Dramatic = audience knows more

Verbal irony — The words mean the opposite of what is literally said. Nice weather, on a stormy day. Distinguished from sarcasm (which is always mean-spirited) — verbal irony can be gentle or even affectionate.

Situational irony — The actual outcome is opposite to what was expected or what would seem appropriate. Often darkly comic. Oedipus trying to avoid his fate only to fulfill it. A marriage counselor getting divorced.

Dramatic irony — Audience or reader has information that characters lack. Creates tension, suspense, or tragic effect. Shakespeare uses it constantly: we know Iago is evil; Othello does not. We know Romeo is alive; Juliet does not.

Cosmic irony — Also called irony of fate: the universe seems to conspire against characters. Hardy uses it extensively. Suggests indifference or hostility of universe to human desires and plans.

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Narrative Point of View

1st person (I) · 2nd person (you) · 3rd limited · 3rd omniscient

Point of view determines what the reader knows and how they relate to characters

First person: narrator is a character in the story (I), limited to their own knowledge and perception. Second person: you (rare, creates immediacy — choose-your-own-adventure, some literary fiction). Third person limited: narrator knows one character's thoughts. Third person omniscient: narrator knows all characters' thoughts. Unreliable narrator: narrator whose account we should not fully trust.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Intermediate

First person limitations

We only know what the narrator knows. Creates intimacy and subjectivity. Narrator may be unreliable (self-deceived, lying, limited perspective). The Great Gatsby: Nick narrates but is he objective?

Third person omniscient

God-like narrator who knows all characters' inner thoughts and can move freely in time and space. Traditional in 19th century novels (Tolstoy, Dickens). Creates distance but allows comprehensive understanding.

Unreliable narrator

Narrator whose credibility is compromised: mentally unstable (Tell-Tale Heart), self-deceived (Humbert Humbert in Lolita), naive (Huck Finn), dishonest. Watch for gaps between what narrator says and what the evidence suggests.

Free indirect discourse

Narrative technique blending third person narration with first person thought, without quotation marks or said she thought. Jane Austen masterfully uses it to show character consciousness while maintaining narrative distance.

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🃏 Narrative Point of View

The four points of view?

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🃏 Answer

1st person (I) · 2nd person (you) · 3rd limited · 3rd omniscient

First person limitations — We only know what the narrator knows. Creates intimacy and subjectivity. Narrator may be unreliable (self-deceived, lying, limited perspective). The Great Gatsby: Nick narrates but is he objective?

Third person omniscient — God-like narrator who knows all characters' inner thoughts and can move freely in time and space. Traditional in 19th century novels (Tolstoy, Dickens). Creates distance but allows comprehensive understanding.

Unreliable narrator — Narrator whose credibility is compromised: mentally unstable (Tell-Tale Heart), self-deceived (Humbert Humbert in Lolita), naive (Huck Finn), dishonest. Watch for gaps between what narrator says and what the evidence suggests.

Free indirect discourse — Narrative technique blending third person narration with first person thought, without quotation marks or said she thought. Jane Austen masterfully uses it to show character consciousness while maintaining narrative distance.

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Plot Structure

Freytag's Pyramid: Exposition, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, Resolution

The five-part narrative arc that shapes most stories

Freytag's Pyramid: Exposition (introduce characters, setting, situation). Rising Action (complications build tension, stakes raised). Climax (turning point, highest tension, often a decisive action or revelation). Falling Action (consequences of climax unfold). Resolution/Denouement (threads resolved, new equilibrium). In medias res: story begins in the middle of action. Flashback: analepsis. Flash-forward: prolepsis.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Intermediate

Exposition

Background information delivered at the start. Too much = boring (info-dump). Too little = confusion. Skilled authors weave exposition into action and dialogue. As you know, Bob dialogue = clumsy exposition.

Climax

Not necessarily the most exciting moment — the turning point from which nothing can go back to normal. In tragedy: the fatal mistake or decision. In comedy: the resolution of misunderstanding. Often involves a revelation, decision, or confrontation.

In medias res

Latin: in the middle of things. Story begins at a dramatic moment, then uses flashback to fill in backstory. The Iliad, many films. Creates immediate engagement but requires careful management of information.

Subplot

Secondary plot running alongside main plot. Provides contrast (comic relief in tragedy, serious depth in comedy), develops themes, develops minor characters. Subplot and main plot often converge at climax.

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🃏 Plot Structure

Freytag's pyramid — the five parts?

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🃏 Answer

Freytag's Pyramid: Exposition, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, Resolution

Exposition — Background information delivered at the start. Too much = boring (info-dump). Too little = confusion. Skilled authors weave exposition into action and dialogue. As you know, Bob dialogue = clumsy exposition.

Climax — Not necessarily the most exciting moment — the turning point from which nothing can go back to normal. In tragedy: the fatal mistake or decision. In comedy: the resolution of misunderstanding. Often involves a revelation, decision, or confrontation.

In medias res — Latin: in the middle of things. Story begins at a dramatic moment, then uses flashback to fill in backstory. The Iliad, many films. Creates immediate engagement but requires careful management of information.

Subplot — Secondary plot running alongside main plot. Provides contrast (comic relief in tragedy, serious depth in comedy), develops themes, develops minor characters. Subplot and main plot often converge at climax.

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Symbolism & Allegory

Symbol = object that represents an idea · Allegory = extended symbol throughout entire work

Symbolism operates at the level of specific images; allegory at the level of the whole narrative

Symbol: an object, character, or event that stands for an abstract idea beyond its literal meaning. The green light in Gatsby = the American Dream, hope, the unattainable future. Allegory: an entire narrative in which characters and events systematically represent abstract ideas or historical figures. Animal Farm = allegorical critique of Soviet communism. Every character and event has a specific real-world referent.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Advanced

Finding symbols

Not everything is a symbol — beware over-reading. Symbols are usually emphasized, repeated, or placed at significant moments. Authorial intent matters but texts can generate meanings beyond intent.

Universal symbols

Some symbols appear across cultures: light = knowledge/truth/hope, darkness = ignorance/evil/death, water = purification/rebirth/chaos, seasons (spring = renewal, winter = death). Be careful — context always matters.

Allegory types

Political allegory (Animal Farm, The Crucible). Religious allegory (Pilgrim Progress, Narnia). Moral allegory (Everyman). Historical allegory (many medieval texts). Note: a text can be read allegorically without being a strict allegory if the author did not intend it.

Motif

A recurring element (image, phrase, situation) that develops thematic significance through repetition. Different from symbol: motif recurs throughout the text; symbol need not. In Macbeth: blood as a motif tracking guilt and violence.

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🃏 Symbolism & Allegory

Symbol vs allegory?

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🃏 Answer

Symbol = object that represents an idea · Allegory = extended symbol throughout entire work

Finding symbols — Not everything is a symbol — beware over-reading. Symbols are usually emphasized, repeated, or placed at significant moments. Authorial intent matters but texts can generate meanings beyond intent.

Universal symbols — Some symbols appear across cultures: light = knowledge/truth/hope, darkness = ignorance/evil/death, water = purification/rebirth/chaos, seasons (spring = renewal, winter = death). Be careful — context always matters.

Allegory types — Political allegory (Animal Farm, The Crucible). Religious allegory (Pilgrim Progress, Narnia). Moral allegory (Everyman). Historical allegory (many medieval texts). Note: a text can be read allegorically without being a strict allegory if the author did not intend it.

Motif — A recurring element (image, phrase, situation) that develops thematic significance through repetition. Different from symbol: motif recurs throughout the text; symbol need not. In Macbeth: blood as a motif tracking guilt and violence.

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Tone & Mood

TONE = author or speaker attitude toward the subject · MOOD = emotional atmosphere felt by the reader or audience

Two commonly confused terms — tone is created; mood is experienced

Tone is the author or speaker's attitude toward the subject or audience: ironic, reverent, elegiac, sardonic, nostalgic, detached. Mood (or atmosphere) is the emotional feeling a text creates in the reader: melancholy, tense, joyful, foreboding. Authors create mood through word choice (diction), imagery, setting, and pacing. Tone and mood often differ — a speaker may have a bitter tone while creating a melancholy mood.

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Intermediate

Identifying tone

Ask: how does the speaker/author feel about this subject? Look at diction (word choice), syntax (sentence structure), imagery, and what is included or omitted. List 2-3 specific adjectives before writing about tone.

Identifying mood

Ask: how do I feel as a reader? What emotions does this passage evoke? Created by setting descriptions, imagery, pacing (short choppy sentences = tension), and sound devices.

Diction levels

Formal vs informal. Elevated vs colloquial. Latinate (Latinized) vs Anglo-Saxon (short, concrete words). High diction signals sophistication or ironic distance. Low diction signals intimacy, authenticity, or satire.

Pathetic fallacy

John Ruskin term: attributing human emotions to nature. Dark storm clouds during a funeral. Sunny day when character falls in love. Creates mood, suggests thematic connection between human and natural worlds.

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🃏 Tone & Mood

Tone vs mood?

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🃏 Answer

TONE = author or speaker attitude toward the subject · MOOD = emotional atmosphere felt by the reader or audience

Identifying tone — Ask: how does the speaker/author feel about this subject? Look at diction (word choice), syntax (sentence structure), imagery, and what is included or omitted. List 2-3 specific adjectives before writing about tone.

Identifying mood — Ask: how do I feel as a reader? What emotions does this passage evoke? Created by setting descriptions, imagery, pacing (short choppy sentences = tension), and sound devices.

Diction levels — Formal vs informal. Elevated vs colloquial. Latinate (Latinized) vs Anglo-Saxon (short, concrete words). High diction signals sophistication or ironic distance. Low diction signals intimacy, authenticity, or satire.

Pathetic fallacy — John Ruskin term: attributing human emotions to nature. Dark storm clouds during a funeral. Sunny day when character falls in love. Creates mood, suggests thematic connection between human and natural worlds.

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Allusion & Intertextuality

Allusion = brief reference to external text/event · Intertextuality = texts in dialogue with each other

Literature builds meaning by referencing other texts and cultural knowledge

Allusion: a brief, implicit reference to a person, text, event, or place assumed to be known by the reader (a Herculean task, a Pyrrhic victory). Intertextuality (Kristeva): no text exists in isolation — all texts are woven from previous texts. Parody: imitates a text for comic effect. Pastiche: imitates a text affectionately. Homage. Influence. Revision (rewriting a canonical text from a new perspective, e.g., Wide Sargasso Sea revises Jane Eyre).

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Advanced

Biblical allusions

Western literature saturated with Biblical references. Paradise Lost, The Old Man and the Sea (Christ imagery), East of Eden (Cain and Abel). Understanding Bible stories, myths, and classical references unlocks layers of meaning.

Classical allusions

Greek and Roman mythology widely referenced: Achilles heel, Pandora box, Sisyphean task, Oedipal complex. Milton, Shakespeare, Keats, Eliot all assume classical knowledge in their readers.

Epigraph

A quotation placed at the beginning of a work or chapter. Sets theme, creates ironic dialogue with text, or signals the author's literary influences. Read epigraphs carefully — they are rarely decorative.

Revision and response

Wide Sargasso Sea (Rhys) rewrites Jane Eyre from Bertha Mason's perspective. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead rewrites Hamlet from minor characters. Retellings reveal whose story gets told and whose is marginalized.

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🃏 Allusion & Intertextuality

Allusion vs intertextuality?

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🃏 Answer

Allusion = brief reference to external text/event · Intertextuality = texts in dialogue with each other

Biblical allusions — Western literature saturated with Biblical references. Paradise Lost, The Old Man and the Sea (Christ imagery), East of Eden (Cain and Abel). Understanding Bible stories, myths, and classical references unlocks layers of meaning.

Classical allusions — Greek and Roman mythology widely referenced: Achilles heel, Pandora box, Sisyphean task, Oedipal complex. Milton, Shakespeare, Keats, Eliot all assume classical knowledge in their readers.

Epigraph — A quotation placed at the beginning of a work or chapter. Sets theme, creates ironic dialogue with text, or signals the author's literary influences. Read epigraphs carefully — they are rarely decorative.

Revision and response — Wide Sargasso Sea (Rhys) rewrites Jane Eyre from Bertha Mason's perspective. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead rewrites Hamlet from minor characters. Retellings reveal whose story gets told and whose is marginalized.

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Theme vs Topic

TOPIC = the subject matter of a text · THEME = a complete argument or claim the text makes about that subject

A theme is a complete statement about what a text reveals about human experience

Topic: the subject a text addresses (love, war, identity, justice). Theme: the specific insight or argument the text makes about that topic. Love is not a theme. Love corrupts those who pursue it obsessively is a theme. Themes are stated as complete sentences expressing a debatable claim about human experience. A text can have multiple themes. Do not confuse moral (lesson) with theme (insight).

📖 Full Lesson →Difficulty: Intermediate

Theme statement

Complete sentence. Arguable — not universally agreed upon. Grounded in the text. Universal — speaks beyond the specific characters and events. Example: In The Great Gatsby, the American Dream is ultimately revealed as a destructive illusion that corrupts those who pursue it.

Universal themes

Identity and self-discovery. Power and corruption. Love and sacrifice. War and its costs. Individual vs society. Coming of age. Justice and injustice. Nature vs civilization. These recur across all literatures and cultures.

Theme vs moral

Moral: the lesson stated (do not lie). Theme: the complex insight (honesty demands courage but deception destroys relationships over time). Morals are simple and prescriptive. Themes are nuanced and exploratory.

Finding theme

Ask: what does the protagonist learn or fail to learn? What patterns repeat? What does the ending suggest about the author's view of humanity or society? What would be lost if a character or event were removed?

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🃏 Theme vs Topic

Topic vs theme?

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🃏 Answer

TOPIC = the subject matter of a text · THEME = a complete argument or claim the text makes about that subject

Theme statement — Complete sentence. Arguable — not universally agreed upon. Grounded in the text. Universal — speaks beyond the specific characters and events. Example: In The Great Gatsby, the American Dream is ultimately revealed as a destructive illusion that corrupts those who pursue it.

Universal themes — Identity and self-discovery. Power and corruption. Love and sacrifice. War and its costs. Individual vs society. Coming of age. Justice and injustice. Nature vs civilization. These recur across all literatures and cultures.

Theme vs moral — Moral: the lesson stated (do not lie). Theme: the complex insight (honesty demands courage but deception destroys relationships over time). Morals are simple and prescriptive. Themes are nuanced and exploratory.

Finding theme — Ask: what does the protagonist learn or fail to learn? What patterns repeat? What does the ending suggest about the author's view of humanity or society? What would be lost if a character or event were removed?

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🎓 Common Exam Questions

Memory tricks for DNA, heredity & mutations